Patricia A. MacAulay
CHILD DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANT
Sequential Stages
DEVELOPMENTAL
STAGE
Through nurturing and stimulation, we grow our brains in a mostly sequential manner, first working to establish a sense of safety mediated through the brainstem while being cared for as infants and babies, then growing our limbic system and mid-brain region through new experiences facilitated by caregivers. By the time we reach school-age, most of our brain growth should be focussed in the cortical area as we build sophisticated language skills that enable us to integrate our learning.
Before we had neuro-science, we had Dr. Erik Erikson, a psychologist who presented a theory of human development that is still widely taught in psychology and education programs. He described a sequential, only partly conscious, age-based process wherein, from birth onwards, human beings face a series of conflicts between their own psychological needs and the needs of society. Successfully navigating each of these stages enables us to understand and accept ourselves and to live meaningfully. Being unable to resolve the challenges at each stage generates confusion, a sense of inadequacy, and difficulties with subsequent challenges.
The early stages of this framework correspond roughly with the stages of neural development identified by contemporary brain researchers Dr. Allan Schore and Dr. Bruce Perry. Erikson’s timeline has attracted some criticism. Other researchers have argued that the process may not be as sequential as the theory suggests and that the age ranges put forward may not be accurate. As well, the theory has not been investigated regarding any variations that may occur due to cultural or gender differences or if new technologies are altering children’s psycho-social growth processes.
Overall, though, I have found Erikson’s framework, augmented by more recent work in the neurobiology of early experiences, to be a helpful way to conceptualize the inner life of the child, not as an idealized time of fun and games, but as a time when serious and long lasting psychological adaptations are being made … mostly through fun and games.
Erikson’s main point was that, if we resolve the main conflict experienced at each stage, we develop certain psychological strengths that prepare us for the next set of challenges. If we cannot do so, we do not feel competent and therefore have difficulty acquiring necessary life skills. In his view, that sense of competence underlies all our decisions and actions and determines our willingness and capacity to take on new challenges. Feeling competent is fundamental to learning and growth. When children feel like they can’t do something, they will avoid it, and their learning will suffer.
Erikson’s framework described the entire life span, but this website will focus only on the four stages ascribed to children, adding a little bit about what is happening with the child’s brain at each stage (with the world's most over-simplified brain diagrams!)
Establishing Trust
Building Confidence
Finding Purpose
Demonstrating
Competence
From conception onwards, the child’s brainstem, the bottom part of the brain which is responsible for basic survival functions, develops as, without yet having the language to do so, we learn to use our five senses to assess and respond to risks.
A healthy brainstem allows us to live in a state of calm alertness. An unhealthy one results in living in a state of arousal that does not match our actual circumstances, either being overly reactive to or excessively unprepared for threats.
By meeting the needs of infants and babies in a timely manner, caregivers help stabilize and regulate the child’s sensory-motor system. A regulated system allows us to trust what is safe and be wary of what is unknown.
Trusting ourselves and others, we can enter novel, untried situations such as walking into a new classroom or joining a new activity. Knowing we will be okay no matter what, we have hope for our future.
Without that hope, however, we feel excessive fear and anxiety.
As toddlers begin trying new things, our mid-brain grows rapidly. This area is mainly responsible for emotion, memory, and motor functions.
Of course, due to inexperience and low skill levels, the child will encounter uncertainty and mistakes. We compare ourselves unfavourably to larger and more-capable adults or older children at this stage.
Struggles with self-doubt and shame are inevitable as we wonder if we will ever be able to do things for ourselves.
Finding a balance between being completely reliant on others and being excessively independent is the main task. This balance gives the child what Dr. Erikson called ‘’will.’’ A child with will believes that they can pursue their intentions within safe boundaries and with the support of others.
We can explore the limit of our abilities in an environment that is tolerant of errors and failure. We have confidence in ourselves and others.
If we feel unsupported at this stage, we develop a sense of self-doubt and inadequacy. In extreme situations, we become shame-prone, believing that we are without value.
Traditionally, it was the expectation (fervent hope) that, at school-age, children would be happy to show others what they can do.
As the cortical brain regions develop, the child begins to measure their achievements against others. We work to figure out if there is a way that we can be good at something and thus feel competent and worthwhile. This sense of competence is central to a healthy identity.
Throughout this stage, the child starts to rely less on adult approval and more on the high regard of peers, the people who will be part of our future life path.
We need encouragement for actions and initiatives so that we feel able to perform at full potential and motivated to work hard.
We need to experience some low-stakes failures that encourage appropriate levels of modesty and respect towards others, understanding that we are neither inferior nor superior to others. Without such balance, it is difficult for us to assert ourselves socially and to take appropriate action that will enable us to accomplish what we want to achieve in our lives.
As toddlers grow into pre-schoolers, our limbic system continues to develop. Greater skill gives children more power over the world around them. We recognize unique interests and needs and initiate actions through play and other activities.
We struggle with guilty feelings when we realize that our actions may be displeasing to others, wondering whether we are good or bad. By engaging in this struggle, children can learn that we can all do things that are characterized as ‘’good’’ or ‘’bad,’’ but we can balance our own needs with the greater good.
We practice deferring to authority when necessary and exerting personal control, as appropriate. We can initiate activities without excessive doubt, and we know we can learn from mistakes. That is a life of purpose.
A child requires the capacity for guilty feelings to develop a conscience and exercise self control, but in excess, guilt can either inhibit behaviour or make us too forceful. Too much inhibition limits our joy. Too little brings on consequences and self-judgments that increase emotional burdens. Unresolved guilt is a big factor in the development of depression throughout the lifetime.